August 13

This being a fast day, I heard a sermon in the Finnish tongue, preached at the church of Tornio. A lawful wife was churched, after her lying-in; which ceremony was performed in the choir, near the elevated part. The women in general had either naturally white hair, or hair that had once been brown, now turned grey. Very few had it red. They wear their hair rather straight.

The physiognomy of both men and women is phlegmatic and stupid; the body clumsy, the complexion bad, and the features destitute of all delicacy of form or expression.

The boundary between Västerbotten and Österbotten is not formed by the river of Kemi, but by another smaller stream, not far distant, on the left.

They catch Sijk (Salmo lavaretus) in a curious manner at this place. These fish, like the common salmon, swim against the stream, and for that reason are to be caught only near large falls of the river, which they are unable to ascend. The fisherman, being furnished with a net fixed at the end of a long pole, strips himself naked up to the waist, and walks into the middle of the strongest cascade. To prevent accidents from the force of the water, a rope is often tied round his waist, the other end of which is held fast by a friend on shore. Thus they catch the fish below the fall.

Seals are taken by various means, being either shot with firearms, or caught in a net. The latter, three or four fathoms high, is made of hempen cord, as thick as a goose-quill, each mesh being two spans wide. This net is kept upright in the water by means of oblong floats of wood, and has no stones at the bottom. Four or five such nets are frequently tied to the ends of each other, and a large stone is attached to the last, bound about with willow or osier, which serves to keep the nets steady. These are set in places where the seals are known to hide themselves, for those animals do the fishermen great damage, not only by devouring fish, but by tearing the fishing nets, from the destruction of which the haunts of the seals are discovered. When a seal comes in the way of the above-described nets, he either thrusts his head between the meshes, getting more and more entangled the more he pushes forward, or, as often happens, he is caught by the foot.

On a sand-hill near the church at Tornio, grew, in great abundance, Granum triticea maritimum, (Triticum radice repente, foliis rigidis; Fl. Lapp. n.34, which, in the second edition of that work, p. 23, I have, by the persuasion of my intelligent friend Dr. Afzelius, referred to Elymus arenarius, and what Linnæus here says, confirms this determination.) Its blue leaves looked quite different from all others, and very handsome. I picked some seeds from the spikes, which were as large as grains of rye. Hence I was induced to consider whether this plant might not serve as a kind of corn, to be cultivated on such dry and blowing sands, provided the proper method of managing it could be discovered, which surely would not be a very difficult task. The advantage of this would be that, by such means, many sandy tracts, where nothing else will grow, might be turned to advantage; and the perennial roots, which no other corn has, would of course save the trouble of sowing it annually. Perhaps even these roots themselves might, in hard times, serve for food.

The tall Finlander Daniel Cajanus, at Stockholm, born in this part of Österbotten, was the son of a clergyman. At his birth he was no bigger than the generality of children, and his health was very indifferent, particularly with regard to his chest, till the age of twelve or fifteen years.

I was informed that the inhabitants of this neighbourhood often hear thunder in the alps during winter.

In the alps of Tornio cold is brought by a south wind, and mild weather comes from the north, because of the sea.

The Laplanders consult several natural objects by way of compass as they travel.

1. Large Pine-trees, which bear more copious branches on their southern side than towards the north.
2. Ant-hills, the south sides of which bear grass, the northern whortleberries.
3. Aspen trees, whose bark is rough on the north side, smooth on the opposite part.
4. Old withered Pines are clothed, on the north side, with the black Usnea, or filamentous Lichen (L. jubatus).

By such marks as these they are able to find their way through pathless forests. Have we any guides so certain?

When these people kill any wild reindeer with fire-arms in summer, they lodge the carcase in a cold cellar, and cut it up as they want it for provision.

I observed a curious kind of lime-stone burnt at Kemi, Tornio, and other places round the neighbouring sea-coast.

August 14.

A very rainy day. A silver ore from Hjortot has been assayed by the Mineral Board, and found to contain forty percent lead, but only three or four of silver.

August 15.

Near the ferry at Tornio I picked up the Fresh-water Sponge, Spongia lacustris of Newton, (S. lacustris; Syst. Nat. v.1. 1299. Linnæus here refers to Mr. Newton, the friend of Ray, who found the Sponge in question in the Norwich river, where it still exists. It is however denominated in Ray's Synopsis, S. ramosa fluviatilis, not lacustris. Linnæus quoted from memory.)

August 16.

In dissecting the flower of Artemisia (vulgaris), I was struck with its very curious conformation. (This alludes to the want of a limb to the corolla of the female or marginal florets. See Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 244.)

August 17.

I went by sea from Tornio to Kalix. The wind proved contrary. The islands abounded with Whortleberries, and with the fruit of Rubus saxatilis. On one called Korsholm I met with a sort of Behen. Can it be the same with that which grows in cornfields? Their different parts are tolerably alike. This grew among the pebbles of the beach. Its calyx is oblong. Leaves narrow. Stem erect. Fruit of one cell. In other respects it resembles Behen. (This was Cucubalus (Behen) variety the third, or γ, Fl. Lapp. n.180. ed. 2. 149. Silene maritima, Fl. Brit. 468. Engl. Bot. t. 957. We have found it remain for many years unchanged in a garden, propagating itself by seed, though Linnæus reports that the third year he could not distinguish his from our common Silene inflata, his Cucubalus Behen.)

August 18.

On islands near the shore I saw a Salix with leaves like the cultivated olive. It is a shrub three feet high, but growing in a spreading manner. Stem grey, with roundish dusky solitary buds, of a very large size, in proportion to the plant. Leaves gradually larger (upwards?), oblong-lanceolate, bluntish, on scarcely perceptible footstalks, furnished with an obtuse longitudinal rib beneath, but no veins. Their upper surface is green, sprinkled all over with minute white dots; very slightly channelled, and paler, along the nerve. (This appears to have been S. rosmarinifolia.)

August 19.

At the fair of Kalix I obtained some information concerning the commerce of this country, which is very different from that of almost every place in the world besides, insomuch that I am unable to determine which party makes his market of the other. The townsman thinks it is himself who cheats the peasant, but I verily believe he is the party who is cheated.

1. The general plan of traffic here is bartering one article for another.
2. The merchant generally carries his goods home to the peasant's residence in the country, at whatever distance it may be, or else conveys them to the fair, from whence the purchaser is to fetch them.
3. When a townsman sets up trade as a merchant, his principal aim is to get as many country-people to connect themselves with him as possible, who are to supply him with their produce. These are termed Gield-bonder, or creditors.
4. The advantage the peasants have in thus confiding to the merchant the whole of their goods, is, that the latter pays their taxes for them to the collector, which must be done either in ready money, or bills of exchange.
5. When the merchant receives the goods from the countryman, no price is fixed upon them between the parties; but when the former returns from Stockholm, he sets down in his account-book nearly the sum for which he has disposed of the articles there. In this the peasant trusts to the honour of the merchant, and is paid accordingly.
6. These prices are not communicated to the countryman immediately, nor does he know the price of the salt, tobacco, corn, and other articles, with which the merchant supplies him in return, till they settle accounts; which does not take place till the end of every year, or perhaps not so frequently.
7. As long as a peasant keeps to one merchant, he is allowed credit, and obtains advances of any money for which he may have occasion, even although the goods delivered do not amount to the interest of the sum lent, which is sometimes equal to 1000 dollars. But if he carries any of his goods to another merchant, he must immediately pay what he owes to his original correspondent, or suffer a sequestration of his property.
8. The countryman never brings his own goods to market, unless he happens to be going that way, in which case he usually takes them with him, but otherwise it is expected the merchant should fetch them.
9. When the towns of this part of the country were first built, each had certain parishes appropriated to it, and these were called the trading district of each town, in which no person who did not belong to the town had a right to trade. These exclusive privileges were subsequently annulled by royal authority, and free markets were established, where strangers as well as the neighbouring inhabitants were equally permitted to trade. This open trade has not however taken place at Kalix, partly because the peasants are situated at so great a distance from one another, and partly because the merchants in the town conceive that such a plan would ruin them, they being in that case obliged to buy and sell for ready money.
10. Here are no free markets, properly speaking, but only Upbördsmoten (periodical meetings of the collectors of the revenues with the peasants). At these times the townsmen and the peasants meet together at the place of rendezvous, as at Kalix every year on the 19th of August, and at Tornio in the depth of winter.

The inconveniences of the above plan of trade are,

1. The merchant lays considerable sums fast, with which he might otherwise extend his commerce.
2. He has the trouble of carrying his goods to the house of the peasant, whereever it may be, up the country, and of bringing what he takes in exchange from the place of rendezvous to his own house in town.
3. The consequence of such a plan is that many a merchant has outstanding debts to the amount of 100,000 dollars, the greater part of which he may never get paid.

The inconveniences to the countryman are,
1. He runs in debt more than he can ever pay.
2. The merchant has the advantage of fixing what price he chooses on his goods.
3. He is not allowed to take any measures for his own profit.

The collar of the shirts, worn by the inhabitants of Finland and Österbotten in this neighbourhood, resembles ours, their sleeves being more like those of a woman's shift.

Young women here commonly wear the bosom open, and have nothing over their shift, which is gathered round the waist like a petticoat.

The country of Österbotten is chiefly inhabited about the sea-coast, and on the banks of rivers. An Aurora borealis was seen in the night  of the 18th of August, and had been visible for a week past, so early does it begin here.

The rowers of the boat in which I pursued my progress had blisters on their hands caused by pulling at the oars. Their specific was the ladle with which they had just been stirring the pot where fish was boiling. This they applied, hot as it was, to the part affected, and the blisters disappeared.

What is here called Taim is a sort of salmon, two spans in length at most, the tail scarcely cloven, the mouth not hooked, but otherwise like the common kind. (This is probably the Salmo salar in a young state; and may perhaps be the Laxunge, or  Salmo minor, vulgari similis, Artedi Spec. 50, not 80, mentioned in Fauna Suecica, ed. 2. 122, though Linnæus has no allusion there to the Taim.)

As soon as the corn is carried from the field, it is usual to thrash it slightly, that whatever is loose may come away, and not be lost in the barn, as also that the coarser part may be separated from the finer.

The flail is about a yard long, and rather thick.

The roofs in this part of the country are made of the bark of birch-trees, not covered over with any turf, but held fast by round poles, as thick as one's arm, whose upper extremities, alternately longer and shorter, reach to the ridge, and being bored through, are fastened to it, in such a manner that their ends project about a span each way beyond the ridge, crossing each other. Being thicker at their lower ends, they lie almost close together. Within this there is often a false roof, like a ceiling, covered over with birch-bark and earth; but this is only when the house is wished to be very warm.

At the residence of the Governor of the Province at Kalix, I saw three swans, which, having been taken when young, were as tame as domestic geese, to which these birds are so much alike in every respect, that I can have no doubt of their belonging to one genus. Their bill is flat, and black at the extremity, as well as the margins, convex and somewhat angular in the middle, so far at least that the swelling part terminates in an angle. The middle is fleshy, where the oblong nostrils are situated; the base flat or quadrangular, with two sinuses pointing upwards, and pale-coloured. The margin is toothed just like the Concha veneris (Cypræa).

A carriage called Stotting is used here, for bringing home wood for fuel in winter, over the ice and snow. It is made of birchwood, and resembles a sledge. The length of this machine from a to b is three feet and a half, the breadth of each beam four inches and a half; their thickness two inches, except in the middle, at d, where it is three inches and a half, though in all the other parts of equal dimensions. The transverse bar, c, is one foot and a half long, three inches and a half broad, and is elevated four inches above the longitudinal pieces. e, e, are two slender triangular pieces, two feet in length, and two inches in thickness. f, f, are about one palm and a half each in length and breadth. h is curved upwards about two palms and a half out of the straight line. g is two feet long between the main beams, three inches and a half broad, but scarcely one in thickness.

The sledges, or beams, a, b, differ from the common ones in being broader, and in the elevation or thickness of each at d. The transverse beam c; on which the load is laid, is bored through at each end, to receive the supporting pieces. The slender bars e, e, which may be termed clavicles, are broadest in the fore part, where they also are bored through, and fastened with pegs, serving to give stability to the cross beam c. Two of these carriages are tied together, one behind the other, through the hole in the cross beam, at k. The loop, i, is made of birchen twigs.

At Kalix I found the Hippuris (vulgaris) with forked branches; Pentaphylloides facie fragariæ, (Potentilla rupestris?); and Eruca foliis sinapeos. (What this was does not appear.)

I noticed limthe-stone in the cliff at Kalix and Tornio.

The scythe which serves at Kronoby in Österbotten, for mowing barley, is made exactly like the common one of the Finlanders, with the foremost handle underneath, but, that nothing may be wasted or lost, the machine b c is fixed to the scythe, b being stuck into the hole at a, and fastened with a pin through it at the other side. A cord is tied from the other end c to the handle d, before the scythe is used. The lower, or shortest, bar of this appendage scarcely extends beyond the extremity of the scythe at f.Its position is regulated by a cord, according to the in-a clination of the blade f g. The length of the main handle of the scythe, e f, is two ells.

August 31.

I collected and described various species of Fungi. (Here follow descriptions or characters of several species of Agaricus, Boletus and Hydnum, given more correctly in the Flora Lapponica.)

September 3.

I stood sponsor to the son of the Burgomaster Geyer Svanberg, who was born the preceding night, or rather between one and two in the morning. He was named Geyer.
Mr. Svanberg told me the (Cotyledon) Umbilicus veneris grew on a hill called Karvick, near Wallivari to the north. (This probably was not confirmed, as the plant does not occur in Flo. Suecica.)

September 4.

I went to Biorknas, in order to be instructed in the art of assaying.

September 9.

I examined the fish called in West Bothland Natting, (Petromyzon fluviatilis.) Its upper jaw is acutely notched, resembling two teeth. The lower has seven small teeth, of which the two outermost are largest. Mouth in the under side of the bead, gaping, oval, rather compressed. There are seven openings in a row behind the eyes, gradually larger as they recede from thence. The fins have no visible rays, but merely streaks, yet they are not adipose, or fat, fins. There is a prominent orifice on the top of the head. The pericardium is cartilaginous. The fish is a span long. Its hind fin triangular.

These (lampreys) are caught at this time of the year, when the nights grow dark, in hollow timbers of a conical shape, resembling the wicker baskets used for catching eels. The entrance is made smooth and even. These timbers are laid, at the depth of two ells, in the river, and kept down with stones, the opening being turned to meet the current. Some such traps are made of willow twigs not bigger than goose-quills, plaited close together into the same shape, and are two ells in length.

I was told that the Laplanders are accustomed to preserve blood of the reindeer in rennet-bags through the winter till spring, when they boil it with water, and drink it.

Tar is obtained in the following manner. A cavity, of an inversely conical shape, is dug in a hill, and then lined with hewn timbers, nine ells in length each, so as to form a sort of funnel. This again is lined with bark of pine-trees, so as to prevent the tar draining away into the ground between the timbers. At the bottom is another funnel or vessel of wood to receive the tar, which runs from thence into a trough, close on all sides, except a hole where the point of the said funnel is inserted, and another at the extremity, closed with a moveable plug, from which the tar is received into vessels and taken away. Roots of fir, cut to pieces, are placed upright in the large funnel above, so as to leave a convexity over the bottom, and the whole being covered with turf is set on fire, against the wind. Care is taken, by varying the admission of air, to prevent its burning too fast, or unequally; and by this means they procure both tar and charcoal.

September 14.

I took my leave of Biorknas. The weather was cold and rainy. Such of the forest trees as are of a deciduous nature had now assumed a pallid hue, in consequence of the cold nights; but the evergreens, with their needle-shaped leaves, standing among them, seemed to defy the cold, and were rendered conspicuous by their dark-green colour. The high wind scattered the withered leaves over my path. now How useful are the usual storms of autumn to disperse ripe seeds, and plant colonies far from the parent trees! The hills appeared sandy; and such places as had been burnt were now perfectly white with Reindeer Moss, (Lichen rangiferinus,) which grew so close together, as hardly to leave any room for the TingLing. It ornamented the sides of the roads 200     'Tornio. like the Iceland Moss, (Lichen islandicus.)

 Some part of the road consisted of a reddish-brown earth, such as I had observed in the early part of my journey near Umeå. I was told that it was excellent for red paint. At length I reached Zingis, and in the evening arrived at Tornio, entirely \vwet through.

September 15.

 I observed how they manage their corn at this season. They have no barns to lay it into, but it is placed between poles, all the ears directed to one side, in stacks two or three ells long, and very high. If the corn be not quite dry, it is first spread abroad. Afterwards it is dried in a kiln, and thrashed on a floor. How liable must it be to take fire, and how much must unavoidably be spilt in consequence of such management!

 I received MO 100 dollars, of copper-money, from the chief clergyman. TORNIO.  2W. I learned here that Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) and Mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) are used to make a fomentation or bath, wonderfully useful for women in labour, who are accustomed to sit over the steam of these herbs. I had observed the people at every house drying Tansy, but could meet with nobody who would inform me to what use it was destined.

September 16.

 This day I again left Tornio, for Kemi. There are six ferries between these two places, over the river Kokama, which passes near Kemi. Two miles from hence are the boundaries of East Öster- and Västerbotten. Lime-stone attracted my notice all the way along the road to Norbotn; it was yellow on the outside, whitish within.

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